Mysterious origins of Universe’s biggest black holes

The mysterious origins of Universe's biggest black holes Most observations of this type rely on ground-based telescopes that use a technology called "adaptive optics". Observers analyse a bright star (or human-generated laser beam) to measure atmospheric distortions that would otherwise reduce image quality. Computer controlled signals correct for these distortions through tiny adjustments to the physical shape of the telescope's mirror. The results are precise observations of the hearts of galaxies billions of light years away, and a wealth of data on their supermassive black holes. Neumayer was one of the first scientists to use adaptive optics to study galactic cores. "It was just mind-blowing that you could have better resolution from the Earth than from the Hubble Space Telescope," she says. "I worked on measuring specific black hole masses. There is a tight correlation: the more mass a galaxy has, the more massive its central supermassive black hole is. Somehow these objects grow in step." Despite this correlation, there's no clear evidence that massive galaxies create massive black holes, or vice versa. They are connected, but the nature of that connection remains a mystery. One piece of the explanation might involve collisions between galaxies. Most of the observable Universe's two trillion galaxies are accelerating away from one another, but many collisions occur, creating opportunities for two very large central black holes to merge into something even bigger. Some scientists believe this could be how the truly monstrous supermassive black holes are formed. When comparatively tiny stellar black holes collide, they release huge amounts of energy for a fraction of a second, producing a flash so bright that it briefly outshines everything else in the sky. If we were to see a similar event involving supermassive black holes, it would be one of the most cataclysmic events to be detected in the night's sky. But, while scientists suspect mergers between supermassive black holes do occur, they may be made less common due to another problematic aspect of black hole dynamics. Black holes on a collision course spin around one another with increasing speed as they draw closer. But very large black holes reach a point at about one parsec (3.26 light years) apart where their orbital velocity starts to balance out gravitational attraction. The decay of their orbits would happen so slowly that the actual merger could not happen within the current age of the Universe.

The human right that benefits nature

The human right that benefits nature For instance, in a high-profile climate lawsuit in Norway, environmental groups argued that allowing oil drilling in the Arctic was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court ruled that the state did in fact have an obligation to protect citizens from environmental harm. However, the court ruled that drilling permits still didn't infringe on the right, in part because the state shouldn't be responsible for emissions from oil it exports. France, however, has taken a step further. The "duty of vigilance" law, introduced in 2017, holds companies responsible for preventing human rights or environment violations throughout their whole supply chains, explains Sebastién Mabile, an environmental lawyer with the Paris-based legal services firm Seattle Avocats. Evidently, the right to a healthy environment requires a few extra ingredients to work well, not least the will to enforce it and judicial systems that are free of political influence – things that not all 110 countries with the right enjoy. Human rights are most effective when they're coupled with other constitutional rights and laws that make it easier for people to go to court and get information on their rights, Jeffords adds. And environmental protection has to go hand in hand with other human rights, Moodley adds, pointing towards governments that have evicted indigenous communities out of protected areas in the name of conservation. Yet when used properly, such as in Latin America, constitutional rights can protect human rights as well as nature – and without hampering economic development; Costa Rica is considered an upper-middle-income country, relying on electronics, software, and ecotourism as its major exports. More countries are considering adopting the right to a healthy environment soon, either in their constitutions or general legislation, including Algeria, The Gambia, Chile, Canada and Scotland. But some of the world's richest – like the UK, United States, China and Japan – have yet to officially consider it. Meanwhile, Boyd still advocates for recognition at the UN level, which could compel more countries to recognise and strengthen it and create ways of holding countries accountable on the international stage. It is often said that human rights have their roots in wrongs. The UN Declaration on Human Rights in 1948 emerged out of the ashes of World War Two. Back then, its authors couldn't foresee a global environmental crisis, nor a wealth of scientific research demonstrating nature's importance to human wellbeing. But such documents are arguably meant to evolve forwards and adapt to new threats to the people they govern. "If we continue down the path we're on, then we're in deep trouble from a human rights perspective," Boyd says. "If we don't step up and actually take the actions that we know are necessary and feasible to protect and restore this beautiful planet of ours."